3 paper-and-pencil formal operations tests were administered to groups of eighth graders and adults. These measures provided scores that indicated each subject's level of reasoning for 3 second-order ...

Modes of cognition are postulated consisting of third- and fourth-order operations; they are hypothesized to be qualitatively distinct from, and hierarchically related to, the form of reasoning ...

The researchers used SolverLearner to evaluate the inductive and deductive reasoning capabilities of GPT-3.5 and GPT-4 across various tasks, including syntactic reasoning, arithmetic operations ...